The rise of climate change and adverse weather patterns threatens both human and nonhuman life. With so much of the human population living in cities, it is necessary to re-evaluate traditional concepts viewing urban and rural environments as mutually exclusive, and find methods to bring ecological perspectives into urban design. To this end, methods such as multiple purpose zoning and regenerative land management serve as clear, proven methods to achieve such ends and help safeguard flora and fauna from deleterious effects of climate change and urban sprawl and transition into a more sustainable, ecologically friendly method of living.

In today’s world, blood donations have stringent rules for deferring individuals trying to donate blood. With a myriad of rules for donor eligibility, such as age, weight, and life history, only a select few are even qualified to begin the medical screening process. Before being screened, the donor must arrive with a valid ID, typically containing a photo so the donation center can verify the donor’s identity. While being screened, employees check for their vitals and hemoglobin levels. In the case of some donation types, a medical professional checks protein levels and completes a physical examination to ensure health. If a donor has made it through all of these screening steps, they can move on to their donation, typically a whole blood, plasma, or platelet donation. These blood products are then processed, stored, and saved, usually for a transfusion or made into an immunotherapeutic medication. Although donation recipients greatly benefit from blood donations, centers typically have incentives for donors as well. Donor rewards come with the various risks that arise with donating, which begins to limit the pool of individuals who decide to give blood. In addition, demographic trends in the donor pool show which groups are more likely to donate as well as groups that are unable to donate as a result of the donor eligibility policies. Some policies in place for donating blood may hinder the diversity of the donor pool and blood supply. Changing these policies and directly targeting groups of people as potential donors can improve our blood supply and save lives.

Insecticide development has been forced to evolve as a field due to the development of insecticidal resistance found in pests. This includes the development of characterization methods for the binding site of newly developed insecticides, to ensure that the chemical is not binding to a site that has already developed a resistance mutation. A good amount of the most common insecticides, like neonicotinoids, bind to a ligand gated ion channel called the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, or the nAchR, and cause neurological symptoms in insects. Spinosyns are a newer insecticide that was found to be a specific agonist on the nAchR, however, characterizing its mode of action proved to be difficult. The hope was that spinosyns like Spinosad could be used as a more specific and environmentally safe pesticide that would help combat the resistance developing to popular neonics, however, the race to characterize Spinosad’s mode of action required the development of several new testing methods, most importantly a viable method for in vivo testing in the alpha 6 subunit of the nAchR which also proved to be the most difficult. This meant that the mode of action was confirmed well after pest populations had already developed resistance. Despite this, the new methods that were developed will be able to characterize newly developed insecticides before resistance development.

Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, have a profound evolutionary significance and are vital contributors to Earth’s current oxygen levels. These prevalent microorganisms are capable of enduring extreme climate conditions, offer ecological benefits like nitrogen fixation and have potential biotechnological applications, including biofuel production. However, their overproduction leads to harmful blooms that release toxic compounds like microcystins, with severe implications for both human and aquatic life. These toxins, especially during large-scale blooms, can damage the liver in humans, disrupt aquatic ecosystems, deplete oxygen, and cause significant pH fluctuations in water bodies. While natural solutions like barley straw show potential in countering cyanobacterial blooms, their efficacy varies across different aquatic environments. Despite the extensive study of cyanobacteria over the years, several holes in research remain, including understanding toxin production mechanisms, genomic exploration,interaction with other microbes, and the broader implications of global climate change on cyanobacterial distribution and behavior. This paper aims to explore the cyanobacteria,cyanotoxins and their effects on life while highlighting the necessity of continuous research in the field.

Primary care physicians must use their time efficiently to complete all the required tasks expected of them while seeing patients daily. Primary care physicians are applying a more team-based approach to maintain a constant workflow and to stay ahead of their numerous tasks. Medical assistants are essential to achieving patient care goals that the physician has previously set, allowing the physician to review the chart with updated information at the time of the visit, which may involve different concerns than what the visit was first scheduled to address. Patient care navigators, another addition to the primary care team, guide the patients through the ever-evolving healthcare system and communicate diagnoses with each physician on the patient’s care team. Primary care physicians can spend more time with each patient with the assistance of medical assistants and patient care navigators. The increased patient-physician time is achieved by medical assistants’ completion of redundant tasks and patient care navigator updating the physician about each patient’s specific needs following visits with other specialists. Medical assistants also help primary care physicians’ efficiency by helping the physician shape their approach to diagnosing and treating the patient as the physician has a general understanding of the nature of the visit from the procedures completed by the medical assistant during the rooming process. The medical assistants and patient care navigators help communicate and follow the medical treatment plans, enabling patients to recover faster from illnesses and help maintain health, limiting complications and minimizing follow-up visits.

Conscious land management is more important than ever as we navigate conservation through altering environments. Today, mechanical, and chemical means are more prevalent in land management rather than non-mechanical practices such as rotational grazing. While mechanical management may be faster and seemingly more efficient, it is missing a vital consideration of land history, soil health, and ecosystem harmony. I worked alongside Lauren Burns and her flock of 11 sheep to graze 3 plots on the Power Line Right-Of-Way at the Lillian Anderson Arboretum. Biomass analysis was used to determine the effects grazing and mowing had on different vegetation types when compared to control plots.

My Senior Integrated Project (SIP) focuses on my shadowing experience at Drake Dental, Kalamazoo, observing crown preparation, crown seating, fillings, implants, dentures, extractions, standard teeth cleaning, and detection of periodontal disease. As a result of my shadowship and discussions with dental colleagues, I discovered the topic of biomimetic dentistry. I specifically focused on preserving as much of the natural tooth as possible during crown replacement using sustainable materials. This paper aims to describe the differences between biomimetic dental techniques and conventional methods of preparing and completing crowns, the reasons for using either approach, and my personal experience with biomimetic dentistry. Witnessing different professionals uniquely perform the same procedures inspired me and elucidated the current paradigm of the field: dentists and dental hygienists visually and verbally explained their techniques step-by-step, making my shadowship more meaningful.

The discovery of plasmids changed the field of microbiology and genetic engineering forever. Plasmids are tiny, usually circular, DNA molecules that are independent from chromosomal DNA and can be used to genetically manipulate genomes of bacteria through horizontal gene transfer (HGT), a process through which new genes of interest can be inserted into the genome of a eukaryote or prokaryote to help their survival.The general protocol for a creation of a plasmid is as follows: a gene of interest is first isolated; the isolated gene and a backbone vector are then cut by restriction enzymes; lastly, the backbone vector and gene of interest are ligated together. The plasmid then integrates into the genome via homologous recombination. This plasmid construction protocol was used by Glaeser and Heermann (2015) when creating the plasmid pPINT_mCherryto analyze gene expression in Photorhabdus luminescence. This project attempted to modify the pPINT_mCherry plasmid for use in Photorhabdus temperata.  

This presentation weaves the life and poetry of Neruda, from his upbringing in Chile to his global travels and fervent activism. This presentation reveals Neruda’s profound connection to both the political landscape and the natural world, showcasing his unparalleled ability to capture the depth of human emotion through vivid imagery and poignant language. Through anecdotes and excerpts, Neruda’s journey emerges as a universal exploration of love, justice, and the beauty of existence. His words serve as a timeless beacon, inspiring audiences to embark on their quests for self-discovery and to embrace the transformative power of language. Celebrating his enduring legacy, this saga invites reflection on the enduring relevance of Neruda’s verse in an ever-changing world, ensuring that his voice continues to resonate across generations. As participants immerse themselves in Neruda’s poetic odyssey, they are reminded of the profound impact that one individual’s passion for expression can have on the collective consciousness of humanity, lasting long after the poet’s journey has ended.

Dental offices all around the world deal with unique cases ranging from restorative work to esthetic procedures, which are solely to enhance the patient’s confidence. Standard conventional methods in dentistry have lots of pushback from patients because they cause sensory issues and anxiety. As a result, there is an avoidance of dental care. Laser technology has emerged as a great tool to help reduce fear and sensory issues that are typically caused by conventional methods. Lasers have proven advantageous during crown lengthening procedures. Lasers are less invasive, have more predictable results, and have their own blood vessel-sealing abilities. Lasers have also been proven to be a great alternative during caries removal. Unlike mechanical handpieces, lasers do not produce a smear layer. Lasers can also etch the surface of teeth, which now allows researchers to question whether the need for acid etching is necessary. Lasers also have a bactericidal effect, which is caused by the evaporation of cellular water, which leads to a collapse in bacteria’s cellular walls. This antibacterial effect makes the use of lasers a viable option for caries removal, particularly in high-risk dental caries patients. Patients often have great fear of the dentist due to pain perception. This pain can be caused by a variety of procedures and injections of local anesthetics. The use of lasers creates less vibration compared to handpieces and possibly damages nerve fibers and terminals, which decreases perceived pain for patients. This overall leads to greater comfort for the patients. Microleakage during dental restorations can create problems regarding secondary caries and the failure of tooth restoration. Controversial results have been found regarding whether laser irradiation of teeth results in less microleakage compared to traditional acid etching techniques, and this should be studied further. Lasers provide significant impacts in the dental field and are a great tool being utilized to maximize patient comfort and clinical results.

Early childhood education not only shapes a child’s early experiences but also may aid in addressing disparities in educational achievement in low-income children and positively affect language and early mathematical problem-solving. This thesis examines the importance of high-quality Pre-K education through a summer internship with KC Ready 4s, an advocate for universal Pre-K for every 3- and 4- 4-year-olds in Kalamazoo County. It explores the services that KC Ready 4s provides to families, the benefits of a high-quality Pre-K and what constitutes a high-quality program, the importance of Pre-K, the main barriers in Pre-K, What Pre-K looks like in Kalamazoo, the work I did for KC Ready 4s, and sheds light on Covid-19 impact on early childhood development. This work underscores the need for policy reforms and investment in early childhood education for the betterment of children and society.

abstract coming soon

abstract coming soon

The knowledge that I have learned from my time at Kalamazoo College gave me a strong backbone for success in the real working world. Building skills associated with marketing, negotiation, and presenting are just some of the many skills that came in handy when facing my experimental internship. I would like to acknowledge and extend my heartfelt gratitude to my many esteemed professors at Kalamazoo College who have helped contribute to my academic growth. Their expertise, encouragement, and commitment to academic excellence have truly enriched my learning experience. I am profoundly thankful to Professors Amy MacMillan and Patrik Hultberg for their dedication to providing a truly unique learning environment that fosters constant growth and for sharing their depth of knowledge within their respective fields which has proved to be invaluable. I would also like to thank my faculty SIP advisor Charles Stull for being a great resource for questions and concerns in reviewing this paper. In addition to the many people I have to thank at Kalamazoo College, I would also like to take this time to thank the entire sales and marketing team at Corza Medical who made my experience so fantastic.

Circadian Clocks are intrinsic timekeeping mechanisms which orchestrate biological processes in response to the light-dark cycle. Present in almost all cells of the body, circadian clocks allow for organisms to synchronize and adapt to external environmental changes. Circadian clocks coordinate approximately 24-hour rhythms in gene expression, profoundly influencing numerous physiological and behavioral aspects, including sleep-wake cycles, metabolism, immunity, and body temperature. Disruption of these circadian clocks has been linked to a variety of pathologies, including sleep disorders, mood disorders, metabolic syndrome, and cancer. Prior research has shown that circadian clocks are based on highly conserved negative transcription translation delayed feedback loops. Moreover, research has demonstrated that core molecular components which regulate circadian rhythms are conserved across species including both humans and model organisms such as Drosophila Melanogaster. In this report, I will first review the molecular mechanisms underpinning circadian clocks in Drosophila as well as in humans. Subsequently, I will discuss future therapeutic implications for Alzheimer’s diseases and the relationship with circadian rhythms.

The stereotype that nice guys finish last appears to be so well-observed that it is widely assumed to be fact. However, equally evident detractions from this supposed rule provide justification for a critical analysis of the subject. This literature review pulls together psychological experiments detailing how ratings of men’s physical and sexual attractiveness by women might be influenced by varying sets of conditions in an attempt to better understand how pervasive and replicable the nice guy stereotype is. It is found that nice guys’ fates are only as rosy as the backdrop upon which studies operationalize them. Factors including being described as responsive, altruistic, and communal are found to increase the attractiveness of nice guys. In contrast, qualities involving being readily agreeable, unattractive, and dull hurt the nice guys’ chances. Crucially, it appears that accounting for the context of what the women is seeking in a relationship might have profound effects on the desirability of dating a nice guy. Recommendations for future research are made in the hopes of further advancing this field. 

Significant fluctuations in the serum potassium levels in a patient are often observed in the emergency department. This rise in potassium (K+) is called hyperkalemia. The elevation can have many drastic impacts on a patient’s health that, if left untreated, could lead to death. The elevation of K⁺ ions is combated in the emergency department most commonly with the use of insulin. This treatment is a short-term, rapid solution to the elevated K⁺ that is used to stabilize patients. However, delivery of insulin can also put the patient at risk for hypoglycemic events. This article reviews this strategy of confronting hyperkalemia in the emergency department.

Climate change has been one of the main contributors to significant crop yield loss within the agricultural industry in the past 20 years. In the U.S. Corn Belt specifically, the Midwest region has undergone notable atmospheric changes that has led to the development of weather technology and farm management skills to assist farmers in preparing for any economic and agricultural risks that may occur. Due to every Corn Belt state experiencing various effects of climate conditions, farmers either understand the dangers of climate change or do not see it as a threat at all. Agriculture managers need to provide effort in understanding each farmer’s unique perspective and problems with climate change in order to provide the best advice and resources. Although resources such as climate education, farming technology, and support groups are helpful for any farmer to utilize, there is ultimately a need for a reconstruction of infrastructure by the U.S. government in order to provide stable economic, agricultural, and institutional support in dealing with unpredictable climate conditions. This research will focus on how climate change has impacted agriculture within the U.S. Corn Belt.

On a single night in January of 2023, the HUD counted about 653,100 people experiencing houselessness in the United States, a 12% increase from 2022. At that time, 29% of houseless individuals had children with them. Houseless youth frequently face significant developmental and behavioral challenges, often stemming from social and environmental determinants, worsened by stigma and limited access to healthcare. Suicide is the leading cause of death in unhoused youth. To address these challenges, Developmental-Behavioral Pediatric (DBP) specialists, trained to diagnose, manage, and treat a spectrum of developmental, behavioral, and learning conditions in collaboration with interdisciplinary teams. This project expands Street Medicine Kalamazoo’s (SMK) services to include DBP specialists via telehealth consultations as a part of the AAMC’s Telehealth Equity Catalyst. SMK was established by medical students, residents, and attending physicians from WMed in 2021. SMK serves underhoused individuals, centering mutual trust and respect. In this project, we developed a DBP telehealth program within Street Medicine Kalamazoo to more effectively serve Kalamazoo’s underhoused population. In order to do so, we developed referral and clinical workflow, created patient educational materials at an appropriate literacy level to meet the needs of the community, and organized consistent means of evaluation to ensure the program does not reinforce any barriers to access. We involved our local stakeholders, including ASK Family Services, Cradle Kalamazoo, Integrated Services of Kalamazoo, Kalamazoo County Health and Community Services, Kalamazoo Gospel Mission, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, OutFront Kalamazoo, Ministry with Community, and the YWCA. Now operational and accepting patients, the SMK DBP telehealth program commits to continuous evaluation and adjustments to maximize benefits for Kalamazoo’s underhoused community, serving as a model for future expansion within the SMK population.

Reusable medical devices are critical in the efficient delivery of effective healthcare worldwide. As the use of reusable medical devices has increased, there has been an increased focus on preventing hospital acquired infections associated with improper cleaning of reusable medical devices. As a part of the rigorous approval process for these devices, medical device manufactures are required to assess the cleanability of their medical devices by soiling devices with an artificial test soil that simulates relevant bodily fluids. As a result, artificial test soils should be clinically relevant and representative of realistic conditions. The purpose of this study was to compare six bodily-fluid specific artificial test soils to the artificial test soil that has been historically used in Stryker Instrument’s Bioanalytical Laboratory. The artificial test soils selected for analysis in this study were based on bodily fluids associated with the skeletal, respiratory, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and nervous system. All experimental test soils were assayed for concentrations of total organic carbon, carbohydrates, protein, and hemoglobin at lab-standardized dilutions. It was hypothesized that the historically used artificial test soil would be differ significantly in analyte concentration than all experimental soils. The findings of this study found most soils to have different analyte concentrations than the historical benchmark soil at different dilutions. While this study only examined biochemical differences between artificial test soils, more research investigating material interactions and inoculation with microorganisms is necessary to determine whether these artificial test soils are suitable candidates for use in Stryker Instrument’s Bioanalytical Lab.

Parkinson’s Disease is a disorder of the central nervous system, it is caused by damage to nerve cells within the substantia nigra. It leads to an imbalance of dopamine which affects motor and non-motor functions. Research to treatment options is limited. There are methods to help relieve symptoms and slow the progression of the disease however, no direct treatment has showed the disease completely stopping progression or having a cure. Physical therapy is a form of treatment that has recently become more significant in helping slow down Parkinson’s progression and symptoms that appear. The timeline of when a physician should suggest that a person with Parkinson’s Disease should seek out therapy is up for debate. Many studies have supported the idea that early administered physical therapy will benefit a person with Parkinson’s disease. While others argue that waiting until late stages of the disease to get any type of physical therapy is just as beneficial. An intensive rehabilitation program implemented directly after diagnosis of the disease can lead to slowing down the speed of the diseases progression and how severe symptoms show. The limitation behind receiving early therapy is the cost. The cost becomes too high preventing people from early administered physical therapy. It is one of the reasons there is not much evidence behind the benefits of early physical therapy for Parkinson’s patients. However, with more research being done there are cases that show patients symptoms being managed more effectively during the beginning stages of the disease from physical therapy.

Increased levels of nutrients (Eutrophication) in freshwater ecosystems is a pressing issue as this process can drastically change aquatic environments. Flathead lake is known for its pristine waters, however, in recent years, increased levels of nitrogen and phosphorus (primarily resulting from human activities) have led to a decline in the quality of the water. The research presented here was conducted by my colleagues and I on nutrient limitation in the epilimnion vs. metalimnion layers of the lake, as well the impact of enriching lake water with water from streams that are input sources of Flathead Lake. Over the course of four weeks, we conducted three experiments: in the first we conducted bioassay experiments to measure levels of chlorophyll in the water after enrichment with N and P. In our third experiment, we used a similar process but enriched our samples with stream water instead. We found that phosphorus produced a significant response in the phytoplankton in comparison to nitrogen (p < 0.0001). However, the response of the phytoplankton depended on where in the lake the samples were incubated as those in the metalimnion did not respond to the nutrient treatments. We also found that Ashley Creek was the only river out of the four tested that produced a stimulatory response in the phytoplankton. Our results demonstrate that the flathead Lake phytoplankton are primarily limited by phosphorus but that this only applies in the epilimnetic layer of lake, likely because in the deeper parts of the lake, decreased sunlight leads to a decreased demand for nutrients. Our findings also indicate that Ashley Creek may have higher levels of nutrients due to increased agricultural activity, however, further research is needed in this area.

HIV is a very prevalent virus in the United States today. Since its official reporting in the 1980’s, more and more research has been done on the virus and how it attacks the immune system and how it is spread. The people that are affected by the virus the most are black/African Americans. This is mainly due to the disparity of social determinants of health in most urban cities in the United States. This literature review will go over the background of HIV, stigmas of the virus and how they affect HIV positive individuals what social determinants of health are, why they play into the role of HIV, treatments for HIV, and steps that cities around the country are taking to get HIV education and treatment more accessible to areas that are at a high risk.

Taphonomy, or the study of changes that occur in animals after they die, is used frequently in police investigations as a forensic tool to determine factors in murders such as victim identity or time since death, often described as post-mortem interval (PMI). It is not the police who study these changes but rather forensic anthropologists. These academics monitor fields of decaying bodies, both human and not, in an attempt to understand the biological processes of death, and what they can tell us about the deceased (e.g., age; ancestry; ante-, peri- and post-mortem trauma; time of death and location of burial). It is from them, and the “body farms” they work on, that one can learn how the human body decomposes, what traumas are present in our bones even years later, and the cultural and lifestyle factors that change how humans appear in death (e.g., decomposition rate; osteological evidence of repetitive action and traumatic injury pre and postmortem). This research provides insight into the forces that allow scientists and officers to determine how long has the body been in its current location and why it is in its current condition. The present case study examines the methods forensic anthropologists use including PMI estimations, osteological analysis and facial reconstruction to answer the aforementioned questions using data obtained from one such “body farm.”

Immunology delves into the complexities of our immune system with the aim to equip students with an adequate understanding of how cellular and molecular components aid our immune system. The class begins with a general understanding of the immune system and throughout the course dives deeper into specific components of the immune system. With the use of labs, students can incorporate their learning from the classroom into a term long experiment. The class is essential for my K-Plan as I plan to be pre-med after school.

Despite a large decrease in cases of perinatal transmission of HIV from mother to child in the United States over the last several years, perinatal HIV has not been completely eliminated. The cases that continue to occur are rooted in social factors and disparities disproportionately affecting people of color and those at lower socioeconomic statuses. Further, there has been a 291% increase nationwide in congenital syphilis between 2015-2019 with cases still on the rise. This investigation explores the root causes for continued cases of perinatal HIV and also attempts to explain the significant rise in Congenital Syphilis in the United States. Through interviews with public health professionals and experts, and analysis of local and national data, it was determined that race and economic status is a leading determinant in the transmission of HIV and CS from mother to child. Socioeconomic disadvantage in racial groups, specifically Black and Hispanic communities, combined with institutionalized racism leads to lower health outcomes for mothers and infants. This project serves as a review of the impact of social determinants on health for individuals in the United States, emphasizing a call to action to prompt sexual health education, prevention and intervention programs, and community advocacy.

Disentangling how important player individual traits from that individual’s skill level in team sports has proven itself to be difficult. Due to the complex nature of teams, especially in sports, statistical analyses such as the Elo rating and plus/minus ratings have been modified to better fit the nuances of team sports. However, these models have shortcomings when identifying how players react and adapt to different scenarios, and do not show how well that player can perform, and only outputs a prediction of their performance versus recorded opposition. With the rise of statistical analyses in sports, novel models in different fields, namely economics with game theory and the Shapley values, have started to be utilized in giving value of contribution to each individual player, rather than the team as a whole. To differentiate an individual’s external factor from their innate factor, and to find how impactful they are in the game, I used Shapley values to contextualize and relate their performance in as game-like a situation as possible. In this study, I measured soccer players’ (n = 10) game-like skill levels through a battery of repeatable and consistent tests and related those values to those players’ Shapley values according to their performances in a small-sided game campaign. I found that the Shapley values and the score that a player received from the battery of tests was relatively positive (r = 0.78, n = 0.066), but did not display enough significance to definitively prove the connection between these two traits of a player. Nevertheless, new methods of statistical analyses have shown themselves to add a new dimension and useability for coaches, players, and analysts to find how any player reacts in an environment according to their skill level and previous environment.

Over the summer of 2023, I spent a month in Costa Rica interning under veterinarians while working to assist conservation and reintroduction efforts for local wildlife. The program objective was to provide interns with experience working with veterinarians and learning from their experiences, observing, and in certain cases acquiring hands-on experience in a medical setting with animals, as well as assisting in local conservation and reintroduction efforts. Specifically, veterinarians provided lectures on such things as understanding X-rays, animal population dynamics, and others. Hands-on experiences included animal necropsies, feeding assistance, and participation in spaying and neutering of local dogs and cats. The experience provided a new perspective on how to partake in conservation efforts, as well as experience in working under and learning from wildlife veterinarians.

In this literature review, I explore the ecological variables that impact land snail abundance and diversity in hopes that this consolidated information can be used to improve the understanding of land snails and how to better conserve them. With hundreds of land snail species going extinct in the last century, preserving these animals has never been more important. In reviewing literature, I have found that different land snail species exhibit preference for different habitat types. Within their habitats, land snail communities are impacted by variables such as moisture, litter, disturbance, soil calcium content, and soil pH. Additionally, the quality of the habitat is an important indicator of the abundance of land snails due to their positive correlation. Finally, land snails have proven themselves to be very resilient creatures given the time and opportunity to heal after disturbance. This knowledge sparks the hope that reviving harmed habitats to the optimal land snail conditions could result in thriving land snail communities. The next steps in protecting these amazing creatures are continuing to study their preferences and utilizing this accumulation of knowledge to shape their conservation.

The purpose of this research was to perform an icosahedral point array spectrum analysis on the two strains and five CPAM drug bound states of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) to determine possible key structural points of the viral capsid. This project serves to further the research towards the prevention and disruption of HBV infection. This research has been done using ViperDB coordinates of each structure, VMD to visualize differences between structures and unique features of the HBV capsids, Matlab to analyze point array data for each structure and determine the fitness of each point array, and analysis using code created by Gabe Orosan-Weine (K’23) to determine the closest amino acids to each point array in each point array. This data was all analyzed for each structure and compared to determine differences that may be caused by each drug and similarities that may indicate necessary features of the viral capsid. These methods produced data that suggests that point arrays 3, 4, 6, 20, 52, 53, and 54 have a high fitness for most, if not all, structures studied, meaning that the points in these arrays likely fall near key structural features of the capsid. It also showed that certain amino acids are repeatedly close to said points, implicating a probable importance to chain and capsid stability. These results provide potential targets for engineered mutations, structural changes, or other changes to the viral capsid that can disrupt or prevent viral infection of HBV.

Photorhabdus bacteria and Heterorhabditis nematodes exist in a symbiotic relationship with an insect larvae host. The bacteria, which exist in two different forms, alter the type of relationship that they have with the nematodes based on their current environmental conditions. In this way, the bacteria can be parasitic or mutualistic. While in the physiological state, the “P form,” the bacteria are parasitic to the insect larvae, producing toxins to kill the insect. However, while in an alternate physiological state, the “M form,” the bacteria are more mutualistic with the nematode, supporting its growth and development. Certain proteins, such as MadO, CipA, and CipB, are upregulated and hypothesized to be produced more within either the M form or P form of the bacteria and can thus be used as a target when trying to isolate and visualize one of the two forms. madO is only expressed in the M form, and cipA and cipB are only expressed in the P form. The present study aimed to utilize these genes of interest by inserting a fluorescent label downstream of the promotors for the genes cipB or madO in the bacteria. To do so, we used two sequential crossover events to open the mCherry plasmid, insert the cloned promotor upstream of a fluorescent reporter, and put this gene sequence into the Photorhabdus genome. The final result was a fluorescent tool that could be used to track where in the Heterorhabditis–Photorhabdus symbiosis the bacteria were in P form versus M form. This tool will be of use to the continued research of the Photorhabdus bacteria and its form-switching abilities in fields outside of microbiology, such as agriculture or medicine.